J Clin Med Res

Journal of Clinical Medicine Research, ISSN 1918-3003 print, 1918-3011 online, Open Access

Article copyright, the authors; Journal compilation copyright, J Clin Med Res and Elmer Press Inc

Journal website https://www.jocmr.org

Original Article

Volume 13, Number 1, January 2021, pages 26-37

Outcomes in Patients With COVID-19 Disease and High Oxygen Requirements

**Table 1.** Baseline Characteristics for the Study Population
Variable	M (SD) or frequency (%)	M (SD) or frequency (%)	M (SD) or frequency (%)	P value
^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise specified. One patient was still hospitalized. Those with sample size for continuous variables less than 398 are: white blood cell (n = 397), lymphocyte (n = 397), platelet (n = 397), creatinine (n = 396), C-reactive protein (n = 390), ferritin (n = 373), D-dimer (n = 217), lactate dehydrogenase (n = 373), glomerular filtration rate (n = 391), troponin (n = 387), and procalcitonin (n = 350). Sample size for continuous variables less than 398 are: oxygen saturation (n = 396), respiratory rate (n = 391); sample size for categorical variables missing are: obesity (n = 12), atrial fibrillation (n = 1), heart failure (n = 1), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (n = 1), chronic kidney disease (n = 1), nausea (n = 1), and chest pain (n = 1). M: mean; SD: standard deviation.
Demographics
Age (years) (mean)	65.8 (16.26)	67.5 (17.32)	64.8 (15.51)	0.11
Age (> 65 years)	210 (52.8)	78 (51.7)	132 (53.4)	0.73
Female sex	133 (33.4)	55 (36.4)	78 (31.6)	0.32
Race				0.66
White	229 (57.5)	82 (54.3)	147 (59.5)
Black	35 (8.8)	14 (9.3)	21 (8.5)
Asian	44 (11.1)	20 (13.2)	24 (9.7)
Other	90 (22.6)	35 (23.2)	55 (22.3)
Ethnicity				0.16
Non-Hispanic	315 (79.1)	120 (79.5)	195 (78.9)
Hispanic	76 (19.1)	26 (17.2)	50 (20.2)
Unknown	7 (1.8)	5 (3.3)	2 (0.8)
Comorbidities
Obesity	167 (42.0)	48 (34.0)	119 (48.6)	0.01
Smoking				0.42
Never	153 (38.4)	57 (37.7)	96 (38.9)
Active	7 (1.8)	2 (1.3)	5 (2.0)
Former	37 (9.3)	10 (6.6)	27 (10.9)
Unknown	201 (50.5)	82 (54.3)	119 (48.2)
Hypertension	237 (59.5)	88 (58.3)	149 (60.3)	0.69
Diabetes mellitus	141 (35.4)	47 (31.1)	94 (38.1)	0.16
Cerebrovascular accident	17 (4.3)	8 (5.3)	9 (3.6)	0.43
Atrial fibrillation	39 (9.8)	15 (9.9)	24 (9.8)	0.95
Heart failure	45 (11.3)	15 (9.9)	30 (12.2)	0.49
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease	27 (6.8)	15 (9.9)	12 (4.9)	0.052
Chronic kidney disease	22 (5.5)	10 (6.6)	12 (4.9)	0.46
Coronary artery disease	56 (14.1)	21 (13.9)	35 (14.2)	0.94
Dementia	36 (9.0)	21 (13.9)	15 (6.1)	0.01
Presenting symptoms
Fever	292 (73.4)	104 (68.9)	188 (76.1)	0.11
Cough	282 (70.9)	105 (69.5)	177 (71.7)	0.65
Myalgia	74 (18.6)	24 (15.9)	50 (20.2)	0.28
Nausea	39 (9.8)	16 (10.7)	23 (9.3)	0.66
Diarrhea	58 (14.6)	25 (16.6)	33 (13.4)	0.38
Shortness of breath	331 (83.2)	124 (82.1)	207 (83.8)	0.66
Chest pain	37 (9.3)	15 (10.0)	22 (8.9)	0.72
Vital signs
Heart rate (per minute)	101.5 (20.78)	98.0 (19.31)	103.6 (21.40)	0.01
Oxygen saturation	86.9 (10.86)	88.1 (9.53)	86.2 (11.54)	0.09
Respiratory rate (per minute)	27.1 (7.76)	24.6 (5.66)	28.6 (8.46)	< 0.001
Laboratory values^a
White blood cell (× 10³/µL)	8.8 (4.31)	8.8 (4.74)	8.8 (4.03)	0.88
Lymphocyte count (× 10³/µL)	12.2 (9.52)	12.9 (11.24)	11.8 (8.29)	0.81
Platelet	211.2 (90.93)	227.5 (107.78)	202.8 (77.72)	0.01
Serum sodium (mmol/L)	135.7 (7.79)	137.3 (8.06)	134.8 (7.48)	0.002
Creatinine (mg/dL)	1.5 (1.55)	1.5 (1.47)	1.4 (1.60)	0.92
C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)	24.7 (11.44)	18.6 (9.23)	28.5 (11.04)	< 0.001
Ferritin ng/mL (highest)	1,594.5 (1,734.71)	1,239.2 (1,413.14)	1,815.5 (1,876.75)	0.001
D-dimer (ng/mL) (highest)	7,564.7 (11,514.70)	3,368.2 (6,482.24)	9,692.1 (12,867.37)	< 0.001
Lactate dehydrogenase (IU/L) (highest)	748.6 (824.14)	575.7 (419.27)	848.9 (972.58)	< 0.001
Glomerular filtration rate	51.1 (15.40)	48.7 (17.08)	52.5 (14.14)	0.02
Troponin (ng/mL) (highest)	1.3 (6.43)	1.4 (8.49)	1.2 (4.84)	< 0.001
Procalcitonin (ng/mL) (highest)	6.5 (12.25)	1.9 (4.50)	9.2 (14.35)	< 0.001
Aspartate transaminase (IU/L) (days 6 - 10) (> 120)	48 (12.1)	4 (5.0)	44 (21.6)	0.001

Table 1. Baseline Characteristics for the Study Population

Variable

M (SD) or frequency (%)

P value

Whole sample (n = 398)

Non-intubated (n = 151)

Intubated (n = 247)

^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise specified. One patient was still hospitalized. Those with sample size for continuous variables less than 398 are: white blood cell (n = 397), lymphocyte (n = 397), platelet (n = 397), creatinine (n = 396), C-reactive protein (n = 390), ferritin (n = 373), D-dimer (n = 217), lactate dehydrogenase (n = 373), glomerular filtration rate (n = 391), troponin (n = 387), and procalcitonin (n = 350). Sample size for continuous variables less than 398 are: oxygen saturation (n = 396), respiratory rate (n = 391); sample size for categorical variables missing are: obesity (n = 12), atrial fibrillation (n = 1), heart failure (n = 1), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (n = 1), chronic kidney disease (n = 1), nausea (n = 1), and chest pain (n = 1). M: mean; SD: standard deviation.

Demographics

Age (years) (mean)

65.8 (16.26)

67.5 (17.32)

64.8 (15.51)

0.11

Age (> 65 years)

210 (52.8)

78 (51.7)

132 (53.4)

0.73

Female sex

133 (33.4)

55 (36.4)

78 (31.6)

0.32

Race

0.66

White

229 (57.5)

82 (54.3)

147 (59.5)

Black

35 (8.8)

14 (9.3)

21 (8.5)

Asian

44 (11.1)

20 (13.2)

24 (9.7)

Other

90 (22.6)

35 (23.2)

55 (22.3)

Ethnicity

0.16

Non-Hispanic

315 (79.1)

120 (79.5)

195 (78.9)

Hispanic

76 (19.1)

26 (17.2)

50 (20.2)

Unknown

7 (1.8)

5 (3.3)

2 (0.8)

Comorbidities

Obesity

167 (42.0)

48 (34.0)

119 (48.6)

0.01

Smoking

0.42

Never

153 (38.4)

57 (37.7)

96 (38.9)

Active

7 (1.8)

2 (1.3)

5 (2.0)

Former

37 (9.3)

10 (6.6)

27 (10.9)

Unknown

201 (50.5)

82 (54.3)

119 (48.2)

Hypertension

237 (59.5)

88 (58.3)

149 (60.3)

0.69

Diabetes mellitus

141 (35.4)

47 (31.1)

94 (38.1)

0.16

Cerebrovascular accident

17 (4.3)

8 (5.3)

9 (3.6)

0.43

Atrial fibrillation

39 (9.8)

15 (9.9)

24 (9.8)

0.95

Heart failure

45 (11.3)

15 (9.9)

30 (12.2)

0.49

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

27 (6.8)

15 (9.9)

12 (4.9)

0.052

Chronic kidney disease

22 (5.5)

10 (6.6)

12 (4.9)

0.46

Coronary artery disease

56 (14.1)

21 (13.9)

35 (14.2)

0.94

Dementia

36 (9.0)

21 (13.9)

15 (6.1)

0.01

Presenting symptoms

Fever

292 (73.4)

104 (68.9)

188 (76.1)

0.11

Cough

282 (70.9)

105 (69.5)

177 (71.7)

0.65

Myalgia

74 (18.6)

24 (15.9)

50 (20.2)

0.28

Nausea

39 (9.8)

16 (10.7)

23 (9.3)

0.66

Diarrhea

58 (14.6)

25 (16.6)

33 (13.4)

0.38

Shortness of breath

331 (83.2)

124 (82.1)

207 (83.8)

0.66

Chest pain

37 (9.3)

15 (10.0)

22 (8.9)

0.72

Vital signs

Heart rate (per minute)

101.5 (20.78)

98.0 (19.31)

103.6 (21.40)

0.01

Oxygen saturation

86.9 (10.86)

88.1 (9.53)

86.2 (11.54)

0.09

Respiratory rate (per minute)

27.1 (7.76)

24.6 (5.66)

28.6 (8.46)

< 0.001

Laboratory values^a

White blood cell (× 10³/µL)

8.8 (4.31)

8.8 (4.74)

8.8 (4.03)

0.88

Lymphocyte count (× 10³/µL)

12.2 (9.52)

12.9 (11.24)

11.8 (8.29)

0.81

Platelet

211.2 (90.93)

227.5 (107.78)

202.8 (77.72)

0.01

Serum sodium (mmol/L)

135.7 (7.79)

137.3 (8.06)

134.8 (7.48)

0.002

Creatinine (mg/dL)

1.5 (1.55)

1.5 (1.47)

1.4 (1.60)

0.92

C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)

24.7 (11.44)

18.6 (9.23)

28.5 (11.04)

< 0.001

Ferritin ng/mL (highest)

1,594.5 (1,734.71)

1,239.2 (1,413.14)

1,815.5 (1,876.75)

0.001

D-dimer (ng/mL) (highest)

7,564.7 (11,514.70)

3,368.2 (6,482.24)

9,692.1 (12,867.37)

< 0.001

Lactate dehydrogenase (IU/L) (highest)

748.6 (824.14)

575.7 (419.27)

848.9 (972.58)

< 0.001

Glomerular filtration rate

51.1 (15.40)

48.7 (17.08)

52.5 (14.14)

0.02

Troponin (ng/mL) (highest)

1.3 (6.43)

1.4 (8.49)

1.2 (4.84)

< 0.001

Procalcitonin (ng/mL) (highest)

6.5 (12.25)

1.9 (4.50)

9.2 (14.35)

< 0.001

Aspartate transaminase (IU/L) (days 6 - 10) (> 120)

48 (12.1)

4 (5.0)

44 (21.6)

0.001

**Table 2.** Management and Outcomes
Variable	M (SD) or frequency (%)	M (SD) or frequency (%)	M (SD) or frequency (%)	P value
^aFace mask higher than 10 L/min. ^bHigh-flow nasal cannula (HFNC)/non-rebreather oxygen mask (NRB mask). One patient was still hospitalized. Those with sample size for categorical variables missing are: vasopressor (n = 1), need for hemodialysis (n = 1), need for ECMO support (n = 1), need for blood transfusion (n = 3), hydroxychloroquine (n = 2), azithromycin (n = 1), steroids (n = 1), prophylactic anticoagulation (n = 7), therapeutic anticoagulation (n = 2), convalescent plasma (n = 6), remdesivir (n = 1), vitamin C (n = 5), zinc (n = 5), antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection (n = 1), diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism (n = 3), diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident (n = 8), and diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia (n = 1). Comparison between non-intubation and intubation groups reports percentages only for cases analyzed and does not include missing cases. Prophylactic anticoagulation included enoxaparin 40 mg (n = 58, 14.6%) enoxaparin 60 mg (n = 123, 30.9%), heparin (n = 74, 18.6%), and low-dose apixaban (n = 54, 13.6%). Therapeutic anticoagulation included enoxaparin (n = 64, 16.1%), heparin drip (n = 18, 4.5%), DOAC (n = 71, 17.8%), and coumadin (n = 3, 0.8%). M: mean; SD: standard deviation; DOAC: direct oral anticoagulants; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.
Oxygen requirement
Face mask^a	1 (0.25)	1 (0.25)
HFNC/NRB mask^b	150 (37.7)	150 (37.7)
Intubation	247 (62.1)	0 (0.0)	247 (100.0)	-
Treatment management
Vasopressor	230 (57.8)	11 (7.3)	219 (88.7)	< 0.001
Hemodialysis	80 (20.1)	5 (3.3)	75 (30.4)	< 0.001
ECMO support	4 (1.0)	0 (0.0)	4 (1.6)	0.30
Blood transfusion	83 (20.9)	8 (5.3)	75 (30.6)	< 0.001
Hydroxychloroquine	373 (93.7)	137 (91.3)	236 (95.9)	0.06
Azithromycin	371 (93.2)	138 (92.0)	233 (94.3)	0.36
Steroids	153 (38.4)	31 (20.7)	122 (49.4)	< 0.001
Prophylactic anticoagulation	309 (77.6)	124 (84.4)	185 (75.8)	0.045
Therapeutic anticoagulation	156 (39.2)	47 (31.3)	109 (44.3)	0.01
Convalescent plasma	30 (7.5)	10 (6.8)	20 (8.2)	0.62
Remdesivir	39 (9.8)	0 (0.0)	39 (15.8)	< 0.001
Vitamin C	252 (63.3)	85 (58.2)	167 (67.6)	0.06
Zinc	213 (53.5)	63 (43.2)	150 (60.7)	0.001
Tocilizumab	118 (29.6)	41 (27.2)	77 (31.2)	0.39
Antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection	364 (91.5)	120 (80.0)	244 (98.8)	< 0.001
Complications
Bacteremia/fungemia	83 (20.9)	8 (5.3)	75 (30.5)	< 0.001
Deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism	18 (4.5)	6 (4.0)	12 (4.9)	0.68
Cerebrovascular accident	11 (2.8)	4 (2.8)	7 (2.9)	1.00
Outcomes
Mortality	228 (57.3)	35 (23.2)	193 (78.1)	< 0.001
Overall length of stay (days) (mean)	19.1 (17.40)	14.8 (12.67)	21.7 (19.08)	< 0.001
Length of stay (days) for patients who died	10.7 (1.74)	-	-	-
Length of stay for patients who did not die	25.4 (22.03)	-	-	-

Table 2. Management and Outcomes

Variable

M (SD) or frequency (%)

P value

Whole sample (n = 398)

Non-intubated (n = 151)

Intubated (n = 247)

^aFace mask higher than 10 L/min. ^bHigh-flow nasal cannula (HFNC)/non-rebreather oxygen mask (NRB mask). One patient was still hospitalized. Those with sample size for categorical variables missing are: vasopressor (n = 1), need for hemodialysis (n = 1), need for ECMO support (n = 1), need for blood transfusion (n = 3), hydroxychloroquine (n = 2), azithromycin (n = 1), steroids (n = 1), prophylactic anticoagulation (n = 7), therapeutic anticoagulation (n = 2), convalescent plasma (n = 6), remdesivir (n = 1), vitamin C (n = 5), zinc (n = 5), antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection (n = 1), diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism (n = 3), diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident (n = 8), and diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia (n = 1). Comparison between non-intubation and intubation groups reports percentages only for cases analyzed and does not include missing cases. Prophylactic anticoagulation included enoxaparin 40 mg (n = 58, 14.6%) enoxaparin 60 mg (n = 123, 30.9%), heparin (n = 74, 18.6%), and low-dose apixaban (n = 54, 13.6%). Therapeutic anticoagulation included enoxaparin (n = 64, 16.1%), heparin drip (n = 18, 4.5%), DOAC (n = 71, 17.8%), and coumadin (n = 3, 0.8%). M: mean; SD: standard deviation; DOAC: direct oral anticoagulants; ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

Oxygen requirement

Face mask^a

1 (0.25)

HFNC/NRB mask^b

150 (37.7)

Intubation

247 (62.1)

0 (0.0)

247 (100.0)

Treatment management

Vasopressor

230 (57.8)

11 (7.3)

219 (88.7)

< 0.001

Hemodialysis

80 (20.1)

5 (3.3)

75 (30.4)

< 0.001

ECMO support

4 (1.0)

0 (0.0)

4 (1.6)

0.30

Blood transfusion

83 (20.9)

8 (5.3)

75 (30.6)

< 0.001

Hydroxychloroquine

373 (93.7)

137 (91.3)

236 (95.9)

0.06

Azithromycin

371 (93.2)

138 (92.0)

233 (94.3)

0.36

Steroids

153 (38.4)

31 (20.7)

122 (49.4)

< 0.001

Prophylactic anticoagulation

309 (77.6)

124 (84.4)

185 (75.8)

0.045

Therapeutic anticoagulation

156 (39.2)

47 (31.3)

109 (44.3)

0.01

Convalescent plasma

30 (7.5)

10 (6.8)

20 (8.2)

0.62

Remdesivir

39 (9.8)

0 (0.0)

39 (15.8)

< 0.001

Vitamin C

252 (63.3)

85 (58.2)

167 (67.6)

0.06

Zinc

213 (53.5)

63 (43.2)

150 (60.7)

0.001

Tocilizumab

118 (29.6)

41 (27.2)

77 (31.2)

0.39

Antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection

364 (91.5)

120 (80.0)

244 (98.8)

< 0.001

Complications

Bacteremia/fungemia

83 (20.9)

8 (5.3)

75 (30.5)

< 0.001

Deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism

18 (4.5)

6 (4.0)

12 (4.9)

0.68

Cerebrovascular accident

11 (2.8)

4 (2.8)

7 (2.9)

1.00

Outcomes

Mortality

228 (57.3)

35 (23.2)

193 (78.1)

< 0.001

Overall length of stay (days) (mean)

19.1 (17.40)

14.8 (12.67)

21.7 (19.08)

< 0.001

Length of stay (days) for patients who died

10.7 (1.74)

Length of stay for patients who did not die

25.4 (22.03)

**Table 3.** Logistic Regression for Intubation
Variable	Multivariate, OR (95% CI)
P < 0.05, **P < 0.001. Analysis included one patient still hospitalized. Analysis includes 238 patients due to missing data. D-dimer, procalcitonin, and aspartate transaminase were not included in the multivariate analysis due to a lot of missing data. Nagelkerke R Square = 0.82. ^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise indicated. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval.
Comorbidities
Obesity	6.33 (1.45, 27.61)*
Dementia	2.01 (0.20, 20.54)
Vital signs
Heart rate (per minute)	1.01 (0.98, 1.04)
Respiratory rate (per minute)	1.03 (0.92, 1.15)
Laboratory values^a
Platelet (× 10³/µL)	1.09 (0.98, 1.21)
Serum sodium (mmol/L)	0.99 (0.91, 1.07)
C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)	1.06 (0.99, 1.13)
Ferritin (ng/mL) (highest)	0.21 (0.03, 1.27)
Lactate dehydrogenase (IU/L) (highest)	15.40 (0.56, 427.25)
Glomerular filtration rate	1.05 (0.99, 1.11)
Troponin (ng/mL) (highest)	1.70 (0.72, 4.03)
Treatment management
Vasopressor	92.25 (19.51, 436.28)***
Hemodialysis	3.30 (0.34, 32.28)
Blood transfusion	3.99 (0.37, 42.51)
Steroids	2.31 (0.60, 8.94)
Prophylactic anticoagulation	0.40 (0.05, 3.03)
Therapeutic anticoagulation	0.26 (0.04, 1.53)
Remdesivir	2.60 E8 (< 0.001, -)
Zinc	0.93 (0.25, 3.44)
Antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection	0.61 (0.08, 5.02)
Complications
Diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia	2.13 (0.31, 14.89)

Table 3. Logistic Regression for Intubation

Variable

Multivariate, OR (95% CI)

*P < 0.05, ***P < 0.001. Analysis included one patient still hospitalized. Analysis includes 238 patients due to missing data. D-dimer, procalcitonin, and aspartate transaminase were not included in the multivariate analysis due to a lot of missing data. Nagelkerke R Square = 0.82. ^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise indicated. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval.

Comorbidities

Obesity

6.33 (1.45, 27.61)*

Dementia

2.01 (0.20, 20.54)

Vital signs

Heart rate (per minute)

1.01 (0.98, 1.04)

Respiratory rate (per minute)

1.03 (0.92, 1.15)

Laboratory values^a

Platelet (× 10³/µL)

1.09 (0.98, 1.21)

Serum sodium (mmol/L)

0.99 (0.91, 1.07)

C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)

1.06 (0.99, 1.13)

Ferritin (ng/mL) (highest)

0.21 (0.03, 1.27)

Lactate dehydrogenase (IU/L) (highest)

15.40 (0.56, 427.25)

Glomerular filtration rate

1.05 (0.99, 1.11)

Troponin (ng/mL) (highest)

1.70 (0.72, 4.03)

Treatment management

Vasopressor

92.25 (19.51, 436.28)***

Hemodialysis

3.30 (0.34, 32.28)

Blood transfusion

3.99 (0.37, 42.51)

Steroids

2.31 (0.60, 8.94)

Prophylactic anticoagulation

0.40 (0.05, 3.03)

Therapeutic anticoagulation

0.26 (0.04, 1.53)

Remdesivir

2.60 E8 (< 0.001, -)

Zinc

0.93 (0.25, 3.44)

Antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection

0.61 (0.08, 5.02)

Complications

Diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia

2.13 (0.31, 14.89)

**Table 4.** Mortality Analysis
Variable	Univariate	Multivariate
^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise indicated. ^bP = 0.05, P < 0.05, P < 0.01, **P < 0.001. Analysis included one patient still hospitalized. Multivariate analysis includes 333 patients due to missing data. D-dimer, procalcitonin, and aspartate transaminase were not included in the multivariate analysis due to missing data. Nagelkerke R Square = 0.54. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval. For brevity purposes, many variables not statistically significant in the univariate analyses are not shown in the table.
Demographics
Age (years)	1.04 (1.03, 1.06)***	1.07 (1.05, 1.10)***
Female sex	0.90 (0.59, 1.38)	-
Race
White	1.00	1.00
Black	1.20 (0.57, 2.53)	1.23 (0.39, 3.87)
Asian	0.68 (0.36, 1.31)	1.06 (0.40, 2.83)
Other	0.52 (0.32, 0.86)*	0.71 (0.32, 1.56)
Comorbidities
Hypertension	2.28 (1.51, 3.43)***	1.26 (0.65, 2.47)
Heart failure	1.98 (1.01, 3.90)*	0.85 (0.31, 2.34)
Presenting symptoms
Diarrhea	0.56 (0.32, 0.97)*	0.40 (0.16, 0.99)*
Vital signs
Respiratory rate (per minute)	1.05 (1.02, 1.08)**	1.03 (0.99, 1.07)
Laboratory values^a
Creatinine (mg/dL)	2.59 (1.14, 5.88)*	2.62 (0.65, 10.58)
C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)	1.05 (1.03, 1.07)***	1.02 (0.98, 1.05)
Ferritin (ng/mL) (highest)	1.58 (1.003, 2.49)*	0.65 (0.28, 1.52)
D-dimer (ng/mL) (highest)	1.98 (1.24, 3.15)**	-
Lactate dehydrogenase (IU/L) (highest)	5.11 (1.98, 13.19)**	4.92 (0.999, 24.23)^b
Glomerular filtration rate	0.99 (0.98, 1.01)	-
Troponin (ng/mL) (highest)	2.23 (1.61, 3.09)***	0.92 (0.58, 1.44)
Procalcitonin (ng/mL) (highest)	1.72 (1.24, 2.40)**	-
Aspartate transaminase (IU/L) (days 6 - 10) (> 120)	2.89 (1.41, 5.93)**	-
Disease severity
Intubation	11.85 (7.30, 19.21)***	15.71 (5.48, 45.02)***
Treatment management
Vasopressor	7.60 (4.84, 11.92)***	2.09 (0.76, 5.78)
Hemodialysis	2.46 (1.43, 4.24)**	0.78 (0.35, 1.72)
Antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection	4.03 (1.82, 8.91)**	0.80 (0.23, 2.84)
Complications
Diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism	0.58 (0.22, 1.50)	-
Diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident	0.89 (0.27, 2.96)	-
Diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia	1.83 (1.10, 3.07)*	0.55 (0.26, 1.17)

Table 4. Mortality Analysis

Variable

Univariate

Multivariate

OR (95% CI)

^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise indicated. ^bP = 0.05, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. Analysis included one patient still hospitalized. Multivariate analysis includes 333 patients due to missing data. D-dimer, procalcitonin, and aspartate transaminase were not included in the multivariate analysis due to missing data. Nagelkerke R Square = 0.54. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval. For brevity purposes, many variables not statistically significant in the univariate analyses are not shown in the table.

Demographics

Age (years)

1.04 (1.03, 1.06)***

1.07 (1.05, 1.10)***

Female sex

0.90 (0.59, 1.38)

Race

White

1.00

Black

1.20 (0.57, 2.53)

1.23 (0.39, 3.87)

Asian

0.68 (0.36, 1.31)

1.06 (0.40, 2.83)

Other

0.52 (0.32, 0.86)*

0.71 (0.32, 1.56)

Comorbidities

Hypertension

2.28 (1.51, 3.43)***

1.26 (0.65, 2.47)

Heart failure

1.98 (1.01, 3.90)*

0.85 (0.31, 2.34)

Presenting symptoms

Diarrhea

0.56 (0.32, 0.97)*

0.40 (0.16, 0.99)*

Vital signs

Respiratory rate (per minute)

1.05 (1.02, 1.08)**

1.03 (0.99, 1.07)

Laboratory values^a

Creatinine (mg/dL)

2.59 (1.14, 5.88)*

2.62 (0.65, 10.58)

C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)

1.05 (1.03, 1.07)***

1.02 (0.98, 1.05)

Ferritin (ng/mL) (highest)

1.58 (1.003, 2.49)*

0.65 (0.28, 1.52)

D-dimer (ng/mL) (highest)

1.98 (1.24, 3.15)**

Lactate dehydrogenase (IU/L) (highest)

5.11 (1.98, 13.19)**

4.92 (0.999, 24.23)^b

Glomerular filtration rate

0.99 (0.98, 1.01)

Troponin (ng/mL) (highest)

2.23 (1.61, 3.09)***

0.92 (0.58, 1.44)

Procalcitonin (ng/mL) (highest)

1.72 (1.24, 2.40)**

Aspartate transaminase (IU/L) (days 6 - 10) (> 120)

2.89 (1.41, 5.93)**

Disease severity

Intubation

11.85 (7.30, 19.21)***

15.71 (5.48, 45.02)***

Treatment management

Vasopressor

7.60 (4.84, 11.92)***

2.09 (0.76, 5.78)

Hemodialysis

2.46 (1.43, 4.24)**

0.78 (0.35, 1.72)

Antibiotics for suspected bacterial infection

4.03 (1.82, 8.91)**

0.80 (0.23, 2.84)

Complications

Diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary embolism

0.58 (0.22, 1.50)

Diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident

0.89 (0.27, 2.96)

Diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia

1.83 (1.10, 3.07)*

0.55 (0.26, 1.17)

**Table 5.** Linear Regression for Length of Hospital Stay
Variable	Univariate	Multivariate	Multivariate	Multivariate
^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise indicated. P < 0.05, P < 0.01, **P < 0.001. Analysis included one patient still hospitalized. Multivariate whole sample analysis includes 338 patients due to missing data. Multivariate no mortality subsample includes 165 patients. Multivariate mortality subsample includes 225 patients. D-dimer, procalcitonin, and alanine transaminase were not included in the multivariate analysis due to a lot of missing data. Multivariate whole sample adjusted R Square = 0.39. Multivariate no mortality subsample adjusted R Square = 0.44. Multivariate mortality subsample adjusted R Square = 0.34. B: unstandardized beta; SE: standard error. For brevity purposes, many variables not statistically significant in the univariate analyses are not shown in the table.
Demographics
Age (years) (mean)	-0.01 (0.001)***	-0.002 (0.01)	-	-
Race
White	Reference	Reference	Reference	Reference
Black	< 0.001 (0.07)	0.02 (0.07)	0.09 (0.10)	0.02 (0.07)
Asian	0.07 (0.06)	0.13 (0.06)*	0.10 (0.07)	0.11 (0.07)
Other	0.12 (0.05)**	0.01 (0.05)	0.06 (0.06)	0.03 (0.05)
Ethnicity			-	-
Non-Hispanic	Reference	Reference
Hispanic	0.13 (0.05)*	0.05 (0.05)
Unknown	-0.05 (0.14)	-0.11 (0.13)
Comorbidities
Hypertension	-0.12 (0.04)**	-0.03 (0.04)	-	-
Atrial fibrillation	-0.14 (0.06)*	-0.09 (0.06)	-	-
Heart failure	-0.12 (0.06)*	0.03 (0.06)	-	-
Coronary artery disease	-0.17 (0.05)**	-0.13 (0.05)*	-0.12 (0.08)	-0.19 (0.05)**
Laboratory values^a
Serum sodium (mmol/L)	-0.01 (0.002)**	-0.001 (0.002)	-	-
Creatinine (mg/dL)	-0.28 (0.07)***	-0.14 (0.14)	-	-
C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)	0.01 (0.002)***	0.001 (0.002)	-	-
Ferritin (ng/mL) (highest)	0.10 (0.04)*	-0.02 (0.04)	-	-
D-dimer (highest)	0.12 (0.04)**	-	-	-
Glomerular filtration rate	0.01 (0.001)***	-5.63 E-5 (0.002)	-	-
Procalcitonin (ng/mL) (highest)	0.08 (0.03)**	-	-	-
Alanine transaminase (IU/L) (days 6 - 10) (> 180)	-0.13 (0.06)*	-	-	-
Disease severity
Intubation	0.12 (0.04)**	-0.03 (0.06)	-	-
Treatment management
Vasopressor	0.11 (0.04)**	-0.09 (0.06)	-	-
Hemodialysis	0.19 (0.05)***	0.11 (0.05)*	0.17 (0.08)*	0.09 (0.05)
ECMO support	0.85 (0.18)***	0.36 (0.16)*	0.21 (0.18)	0.48 (0.29)
Blood transfusion	0.44 (0.04)***	0.28 (0.05)***	0.25 (0.08)**	0.23 (0.05)***
Ritonavir/lopinavir	0.29 (0.14)*	0.24 (0.16)	-	-
Steroids	0.21 (0.04)***	0.11 (0.04)**	0.07 (0.05)	0.12 (0.04)**
Therapeutic anticoagulation	0.12 (0.04)**	0.03 (0.04)	-	-
Convalescent plasma	0.18 (0.07)*	0.05 (0.07)	-	-
Remdesivir	0.24 (0.04)***	0.16 (0.06)*	0.13 (0.09)	0.20 (0.06)**
Vitamin C	0.23 (0.04)***	0.08 (0.04)*	0.11 (0.05)*	0.12 (0.04)**
Zinc	0.24 (0.04)***	0.04 (0.04)	-	-
Tocilizumab	0.10 (0.04)*	0.01 (0.04)	-	-
Diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident	0.25 (0.11)*	0.19 (0.11)	-	-
Diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia	0.28 (0.04)***	0.12 (0.04)**	0.30 (0.08)***	0.09 (0.05)

Table 5. Linear Regression for Length of Hospital Stay

Variable

Univariate

Multivariate

B (SE)

No mortality, B (SE)

Yes mortality, B (SE)

^aLaboratory values are on admission unless otherwise indicated. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. Analysis included one patient still hospitalized. Multivariate whole sample analysis includes 338 patients due to missing data. Multivariate no mortality subsample includes 165 patients. Multivariate mortality subsample includes 225 patients. D-dimer, procalcitonin, and alanine transaminase were not included in the multivariate analysis due to a lot of missing data. Multivariate whole sample adjusted R Square = 0.39. Multivariate no mortality subsample adjusted R Square = 0.44. Multivariate mortality subsample adjusted R Square = 0.34. B: unstandardized beta; SE: standard error. For brevity purposes, many variables not statistically significant in the univariate analyses are not shown in the table.

Demographics

Age (years) (mean)

-0.01 (0.001)***

-0.002 (0.01)

Race

White

Reference

Black

< 0.001 (0.07)

0.02 (0.07)

0.09 (0.10)

0.02 (0.07)

Asian

0.07 (0.06)

0.13 (0.06)*

0.10 (0.07)

0.11 (0.07)

Other

0.12 (0.05)**

0.01 (0.05)

0.06 (0.06)

0.03 (0.05)

Ethnicity

Non-Hispanic

Reference

Hispanic

0.13 (0.05)*

0.05 (0.05)

Unknown

-0.05 (0.14)

-0.11 (0.13)

Comorbidities

Hypertension

-0.12 (0.04)**

-0.03 (0.04)

Atrial fibrillation

-0.14 (0.06)*

-0.09 (0.06)

Heart failure

-0.12 (0.06)*

0.03 (0.06)

Coronary artery disease

-0.17 (0.05)**

-0.13 (0.05)*

-0.12 (0.08)

-0.19 (0.05)**

Laboratory values^a

Serum sodium (mmol/L)

-0.01 (0.002)**

-0.001 (0.002)

Creatinine (mg/dL)

-0.28 (0.07)***

-0.14 (0.14)

C-reactive protein (mg/dL) (highest)

0.01 (0.002)***

0.001 (0.002)

Ferritin (ng/mL) (highest)

0.10 (0.04)*

-0.02 (0.04)

D-dimer (highest)

0.12 (0.04)**

Glomerular filtration rate

0.01 (0.001)***

-5.63 E-5 (0.002)

Procalcitonin (ng/mL) (highest)

0.08 (0.03)**

Alanine transaminase (IU/L) (days 6 - 10) (> 180)

-0.13 (0.06)*

Disease severity

Intubation

0.12 (0.04)**

-0.03 (0.06)

Treatment management

Vasopressor

0.11 (0.04)**

-0.09 (0.06)

Hemodialysis

0.19 (0.05)***

0.11 (0.05)*

0.17 (0.08)*

0.09 (0.05)

ECMO support

0.85 (0.18)***

0.36 (0.16)*

0.21 (0.18)

0.48 (0.29)

Blood transfusion

0.44 (0.04)***

0.28 (0.05)***

0.25 (0.08)**

0.23 (0.05)***

Ritonavir/lopinavir

0.29 (0.14)*

0.24 (0.16)

Steroids

0.21 (0.04)***

0.11 (0.04)**

0.07 (0.05)

0.12 (0.04)**

Therapeutic anticoagulation

0.12 (0.04)**

0.03 (0.04)

Convalescent plasma

0.18 (0.07)*

0.05 (0.07)

Remdesivir

0.24 (0.04)***

0.16 (0.06)*

0.13 (0.09)

0.20 (0.06)**

Vitamin C

0.23 (0.04)***

0.08 (0.04)*

0.11 (0.05)*

0.12 (0.04)**

Zinc

0.24 (0.04)***

0.04 (0.04)

Tocilizumab

0.10 (0.04)*

0.01 (0.04)

Diagnosis of cerebrovascular accident

0.25 (0.11)*

0.19 (0.11)

Diagnosis of bacteremia/fungemia

0.28 (0.04)***

0.12 (0.04)**

0.30 (0.08)***

0.09 (0.05)